The Right to Information Act Free Essays

The Right to Information Act, 2005 is a landmark legislation in the history of independent India. Before the passing of this historic Act, there was â€Å"The Freedom of Information Act, 2002† But to ensure smoother and greater access to information and to make it more progressive, participatory, and meaningful certain important changes was felt necessary. The Government examined the suggestions made by the National Advisory Council and others and decided to make a number of changes in the said law. We will write a custom essay sample on The Right to Information Act or any similar topic only for you Order Now The Government in view of the significant changes proposed in the existing Act, decided to repeal the Freedom of Information Act, 2002. As a result, â€Å"The Right to Information Bill, 2005†, passed by Lok Sabha on 11th May, 2005 and by Rajya Sabha on 15th June, 2005 and received the assent of the President on 15th June,2005. The Right to Information Act, 2005 contains VI Chapters and 31 Sections. Some of the important Sections of the RTI Act can be stated as follows—- Under the provisions of the RTI Act, 2005, any citizen can seek information in writing in the form of an application or by e-mail and should be addressed to the Public Information Officer (PIO) or Assistant PIO of the concerned office/public authority either in English Hindi or in the official language of the area. Even if one submits an application for an information to a PIO whose public authority is not in possession of information, has to accept the information and forward the same to the concerned public authority about such transfer [section 6(3)] In such cases, the second public authority becomes responsible for providing the applicant with the information that is requested within prescribed time limit [section 5(5)] Reason for securing information is not required to be stated in the application. Normally the PIO is to provide the information within 30 days. However in case of life and liberty, the PIO is bound to provide information within 48 hours. If the required information is part of a proactive disclosure of section 4 (I) (b), then it should be provided instantly by the PIO without any application fee, except the printing cost of the information. No prescribed format is necessary to apply under RTI Act,2005. An application on a plain paper comprising full postal address of the applicant, PIO or Assistant PIO’s address, details of information required with a statement that the information is sought under RTI Act 2005, are the basic requirements. Application fee of Rs. 10 (in case of Government of Assam office/organization) is required in case of a Government of Indian office/organization. If the applicant does not receive the information or is not satisfied with the information received from the PIO, he/she can file an appeal with the first appellate authority (FAA) under section 19 (I). There is no prescribed format for an appeal. Moreover, neither Govt. of India nor Govt. of Assam prescribed any fees for the first appeal till now. The Act prescribed maximum 45 days time for the disposal of first appeal by the FAA. If an applicant does not receive information within 45 days, then he/she can take the matter forward to the second appeal stage. The RTI Act, 2005 is a historic legislation and no such strong provision has been made in any Act or code in India till date. The right to information covers inspections of works, document, record and its certified copy and information in the form of diskettes, floppies, video cassettes in electronic form, taped or stored information in computers etc. Though certain information are prohibited, every public authority is under obligations to provide information on written request or request by electronic means with payment of fee. The Act vehemently provides for restrictions for third party information. It has been stated earlier that there is the appellate provision in the Act. As such, the appeal against the decision of central information officer and state information officer can be made to a senior officer in rank. The penalty for refusal to receive an application for information or for not providing information is Rs. 250 per day, but the total amount of penalty should not exceed Rs. 25000 The Central Information Commission is to be constituted by the Central Govt. and State Information Commission by the respective state governments. In spite of having the various important and powerful provisions the state Governments are not ready to implement the RTI Act, 2005, in letter and spirit. The case is pertinent in Assam too, which so far has seen the government drag its feet when it comes to implementing the various provisions under the Act. Consequently Assam is among those states where the State Information Commission has been unable to perform to the desired extent, or simply failed to bring in probity and transparency in matters of public finance. When state Government will come forward to implement the provisions of RTI Act then only the true objectives of the Act will be fulfilled. The Act will be able to curb corruption and misuse of taxpayer’s money will be stopped, and can be utilized for the sake of common good and welfare of the state. The posts of Information Commissioner should be filled up by qualified and impartial persons. Free legal education should be provided to the people, to be more conscious about the legal benefit of the Act and help to access the information and exert their rights in true spirit. How to cite The Right to Information Act, Papers

Yanomamo Tribe Essay Example For Students

Yanomamo Tribe Essay The YanomamoMy name is Eric Dunning and this is my proposal to go and study the Yanomamo tribe in the rain forests of Brazil. I have compiled a historical outline of the Yanomamo tribe and some of their religion and culture, ranging from marital status to the type of food they eat. I have chosen this tribe because according to many anthropologists the Yanomamo are perhaps the last culture to have come in contact with the modern world. The Yanomamo people of Central Brazil are one of the oldest examples of the classic pre-Columbian forest footmen. The Yanomamo live in almost complete seclusion in the Amazon rain forests of South America. The Yanomamo live in small bands or tribes and live in round communal huts called shabonos, which are actually made up of individual living quarters. The Yanomamo language consists of a variety of dialect, but no real written language. Clothes are minimal, and much of their daily life revolves around gardening, hunting, gathering, making crafts and visiting with one another. These small tribes hold their men in high ranks. Chiefs are always men who are held responsible for the general knowledge and safety of the groups women. The men are able to beat their wives if they feel the need to and are able to marry more than one woman at a time. This loose form of polygamy is a way of increasing the population of the tribe. Yanomamo people rely heavily on a system of political alliances b ased upon relationship. As part of that system, they have incorporated a complex feasting and trading system into their culture. One of these methods of forming political alliances is feasting. Feasting is when one village invites another village for a feast or dinner. During the feast there is a lot of social activity. The Yanomamo dance and mingle with each other along with eating a different variety of foods. The only catch is the other village must reciprocate a feast by one village. This feast is more like an American dinner party in which members of family or social group invite others to attend. A feast however can be dangerous and or fatal for those who attend. The Yanomamo can be very conniving and deceiving. They pretend to be loyal friends and invite the other village for a feast. The other very village very trustfully attends the feast not knowing that this might be their last meal. After the feast when the guests are helplessly resting in their hammocks they are attacke d and brutally beaten to death. The Yanomamo live in a constant state of warfare with other tribes and even within their own groups. Marriages are often arranged according to performances of ones relatives in battles. Ideal marriages are thought to consist of cross cousin marriages and the males of the family and the religious leaders of the tribe perform all marriages. In addition to their strong kinship ties, political alliances and thirst for revenge, the Yanomamo have a detailed religion, based on the use of hallucinogenic drugs and the telling of mythical tales. We will write a custom essay on Yanomamo Tribe specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now The religious beliefs of the Yanomamo are quite complex. According to Yanomamo wise men, there are four levels of reality. Through them, the Yanomamo believe that things tend to fall or descend downward to a lower layer is demonstrated. The uppermost layer of the four is thought to be pristine and tender. It is called duku ka misi and the Yanomamo believe that many things originated in this area. This layer does not play much of a role in the everyday life of the Yanomamo. It is considered to be just there, once having some vague function. The next layer down is called hedu ka misi and is known as the sky layer. The top surface is supposedly invisible, but is believed to be similar to earth. It has trees, gardens, villages, animals, plants and most importantly, the souls of the deceased. These souls are said to be similar to mortals because they garden, eat and sleep. Everything that exists on earth is said to have a counterpart on this level. The bottom surface of the layer is said to be what the Yanomamo on earth actually see:

Andy Warhol essays

Andy Warhol essays When envisioning in your mind what Pop Art precisely is, there is no artist that could provide a more lucid example of this other than Andy Warhol. Through the use of paintings, sculptures, drawings, and films, Warhol transformed the standard of modern art by making more vibrant and lively features. His nonconforming style attracted much of society that included many celebrities. Using many techniques such as isolation, repetition and colour placement, Warhol brought to the world of art his views on materialism, politics, economics and the media. Warhol's works were meant to be taken at face value, for nothing more than what they portrayed on the surface. Much of his life can be visualized through his extensive time capsule located in the Andy Warhol Museum. Everything he thought to be interesting and valuable was gathered together and set in containers so that that his own human experiences could be captured in time for the general public to view. In my own experience of viewing the time capsule, I noticed that there were many prominent themes in ea ch individual vitrine that represented some segment of Warhol's life and ideas. In the first vitrine, it was apparent that the theme was politics and entertainment of the era, which were obviously very important matters to him. These matters were important to him because he always wanted to keep up to date with cultural trends so that he could reflect them in his art pieces. This vitrine contained items such as publications of the 1960's, magazines that promoted sexual openness, and photographs of Marilyn Monroe, a definite icon of the era. The second vitrine displayed many items that pertained to the production of Warhol's films. Some contents include a letter from Rick Clayton (a man who sat in for a Warhol screen test), postcards, letters, a marriage invitation, and pornography. These items relating to his films were noteworthy because they reflect some the most sign...

Imaginary vs. Imaginative

Imaginary vs. Imaginative Imaginary vs. Imaginative Imaginary vs. Imaginative By Maeve Maddox Reading that a child in Texas was suspended for bringing â€Å"an imaginary ring† to school, I marveled that the school officials were able to detect the ring’s presence. Here’s the headline: Texas School Suspends 9-Year-Old for Terrorism Because He Brought Imaginary Hobbit Ring To School In fact, the child brought a real ring to school, presumably a replica of the ring carried by Bilbo Baggins in the Peter Jackson movie The Hobbit. The ring was real, but its magical powers were imaginary. The English word image derives from Latin imago. One meaning of image is â€Å"mental picture.† Something imaginary or imagined exists in the mind. Here is a review of image words with definitions and examples: imagination (noun): The power or capacity to form internal images or ideas of objects and situations not actually present to the senses. Example: It is because of the  development of the imagination  during childhood that adults are able to do many of the tasks that daily life demands.   imaginary (adjective): Existing only in imagination or fancy; having no real existence; not real or actual. Example: Lilliput is an imaginary country visited by Gulliver. imaginative (adjective): relating to, or concerned in the exercise of imagination as a mental faculty. Example: Imaginative Artists Find New Ways to Deal With the Western Landscape Tradition imagine (verb): conceive in the mind. Example: The universe is not only stranger than  we  imagine, it is stranger than  we can imagine. imagined (past participle): invented, created in the imagination. Example: The second basic axiom concerning power is that the powerful always try to create  an outside enemy, real or imagined, to bind the followers to the leaders.   Errors also occur with the pairs imaginary/imagined and imaginary/imaginative: Incorrect: It is easy to  perceive  a country as an  imaginary enemy. Correct : It is easy to  perceive  a country as an  imagined enemy. The country actually exists, so it can’t be imaginary. It can, however, be â€Å"an imagined enemy.† Incorrect: Children learn from experience: from what happens around them, from what they see, hear, smell, taste and touch.  To absorb those experiences and make sense of the world, they need to be engaged in imaginary play. Correct : Children learn from experience: from what happens around them, from what they see, hear, smell, taste and touch.  To absorb those experiences and make sense of the world, they need to be engaged in imaginative play. The play is not imaginary; it is real. Because the child is exercising imagination, the play is imaginative. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Misused Words category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:85 Synonyms for â€Å"Help†Latin Words and Expressions: All You Need to KnowAppropriate vs. Apropos vs. Apt

Information Management and a Business Environment Research Paper

Information Management and a Business Environment - Research Paper Example Ciena Corporation was founded in 1992, listed on the NASDAQ stock exchange (symbol CIEN) in 1997, and included in the S&P 500 market index in 2001. The company is headquartered in Linthicum, State of Maryland, USA, with offices located all over the US and Canada as well as Europe and Asia, totalling approximately 1500 employees. Ciena’s founding mission was to design, manufacture and sell optical transport and switching equipment. The company pioneered DWDM technology and became a world leader in the space. Following four acquisitions since 2003 and several key technology partnerships, Ciena deliberately augmented its portfolio to address the network applications with the most business value to its customers. My role as Human Resources Generalist for EMEA incorporates recruitment for the region as well as providing a fully supportive Human Resource/personnel function. There is a great need for effective Information Management within a business environment. The prime focus of the fieldwork was, therefore, the Travel Agent outlet, using a methodology designed to learn through interviews with counter staff what role the use of view data links to Tour Operators played in the servicing of customers (Feeny D. F., and Brownlee C. G. (2001). Subsequent interviews took place with management representatives of leading Tour Operators to elicit the role they saw for systems links to travel agents, and how it related to their overall strategy for competing in the industry. HR representatives interviewed were presented with a standard customer set and asked to explain how they would respond to each customer type.

How does an aircraft carrier support the tactical, strategic, and Essay

How does an aircraft carrier support the tactical, strategic, and operational objectives of the United States - Essay Example The US aircraft carrier and its evolution and employment is the most advanced of its type on planet earth. The United States force projection afloat is the primary means of conducting a number of operations along the civil military spectrum to include everything from peace operations to evacuation of non-combatants to full scale military offensive operations. Since the end of WWII, the US Navy has dominated the blue water and littoral capabilities of naval operations around the globe. The US Navy far outstrips the sheer numbers and size of operational carriers around the globe. It currently rotates eleven carriers with one being decommissioned in 2014-15 and one under construction and two more planned. The carriers have a global presence and a steaming speed depending on weather conditions that can move the carrier close to one thousand miles in just over a day. The nuclear power plants provide an astonishing loiter capability in theater but it is still severely dependent on a long a nd robust logistical tail to remain fully operational. Jets and helicopters are hungry for fuel and a veritable replenishment and protective flotilla accompanies the carriers in their traditional battle group formations. The carrier forces provide a huge menu of force projection options for the President and the capability of the United States to exert influence and power around the world. The US Department of Defense (DoD) conducts the full spectrum of operations along the force spectrum with layers of institutionalized echelons of warfare familiar to most practitioners in the Western world: tactical, operational and strategic. The tactical level is the point of the spear as it were. The operational level is the intermediate level, the interim which takes the strategic vision and provides the means to translate the strategic vision into reality through actual use of forces for the desired outcome. In this case, the carrier battle group also allows National Command Authority to impl ement what some call strategic compression which is the use of tactical forces for strategic outcomes. For instance, a show of force scenario off the coast of a country threatening the national security of the United States could defuse the situation before any shots are fired and avoid hostilities altogether. There is a subtle parsing between grand strategy and strategy in the upper echelons of security policy that would employ longer range planning coupled with political and diplomatic elements to inform strategy and on down to the tactical level. The tactical level is the carrier and its battle group formation itself. Whether the support of Marine forces ashore or the evacuation of civilians or the historical fights between ships where only the pilots of attacking aircraft saw the other ship, the tactical means is the business end of the fight. They can deploy 60+ aircraft off their decks subject to sea conditions and have a force protection envelope that is virtually unlimited f or the aircraft capable of refueling in the air. This does not account for the naval gun fire and over the horizon capabilities for the surface warfare ships and submarines which accompany the carrier on her missions. This normally comprised of the following: one CV/CVN One Carrier Air Wing 50 Strike/Fighter A/C (Peacetime Norm) four E-2C AEW four E-A6B SEAD/EW eight S-3B two Es-3A six H-60 Six Surface Combatants comprising at

The Importance Of Exercise In Older People Physical Education Essay

The Importance Of Exercise In Older People Physical Education Essay In older adults, physical activity is a necessary action to provide and maintain health.1 A substantial amount of empirical evidence has demonstrated that the health benefits associated with participation in physical activity can maintain functional independence and ultimately improve quality of life.2-.3 In addition, participation in physical activity improves self-esteem, mental alertness and social interaction, and decreases levels of depression.4-5 Physical activity is also a major independent modifiable risk factor that has a protective effect against the onset of cardiovascular disease, ischemic stroke, type 2 diabetes, and cancer.6-7 However, a preliminary report in 2007 by the National Statistical Office of Thailand showed that more than 58% of Thai elderly engaged in physical activity less often than recommended for good health.8 Therefore, it is imperative that physical activity among the aged population is evaluated. A review of physical activity studies reveals that the physical environment is significantly associated with physical activity participation. According to Bandura, physical environment plays either the role of facilitator or obstacle in human motivation through the interaction between cognitive functions and environment.9-10 Both natural features and human constructs related to environment may affect physical activity engagement.11 Physical environment positively influences physical activity within older people.12-18 While the significance of physical environment is well recognized, an accurate measure is needed to identify the specific characteristics of the physical environment for physical activity, with respect to older people. If there is low error in the assessment, the explanation of the relationship between physical environment and physical activity will be raised. The concept of behavior setting helps to elucidate the influence of physical environment on physical activity.19 Behavior occurs within a physical and social context. So, the behavior of older people will be influenced by environment the neighborhood, community, or home environment. The home environment is a primary setting for the performance of daily activities among older people.20 In Thailand, most older people stay and participate in physical activity in their home. Although previous studies have assessed only convenience of facilities and access to equipment at home related to physical activity, the characteristics of home environment is the least studied potential determinant of participation in physical activity.11-12 Existing investigations use either neighborhood-focused scales to determine physical environment 14,21-22, or have applied both neighborhood and availability of facilities in the community.18,23 A review of relevant research indicates that aspects of the physica l environment, such as safety, traffic volume, street lighting, unattended dogs, having a sidewalk, and accessibility to public recreation places influence physical activity,14-18 whereas other evidence suggests equivocal results.21-22,24 At least one potential reason exists for this inconsistency which may be related to the physical environment measurement, particularly with older adults. Most physical environment questionnaires were developed in western countries. These measurements have involved different neighborhood and community settings; assessed in different dimensions such as convenience, safety, accessibility, and facility. Even though the physical environment questionnaires have been validated in western countries, they have not been tested in others settings. Due to differences of geographic features, culture, and patterns of living, a need exists to assess the physical environment of Thai elderly to confirm reliability and validity in this cultural context. Furthermore, the relationship of the physical environment of home and physical activity of older Thai people is still unknown. Understanding features of the physical environment related to physical activity may provide an effective implementation design to motivate older Thai people to participate in physical activity. For these reasons, a modified instrument, the Thai Environmental Support for Physical Activity for Older Thai people (TESPA) for assessing the physical environment including home, neighborhood, and community environment needs to be modified and validated for the older Thai population. This study addressed this shortcoming by modifying and confirming a three-factor structure for physical environment in a sample of older adults in Thailand. We hypothesized that a correlated three-factor structure for the TESPA would fit the data well and that these factors would possess good internal consistency. Additionally, we hypothesized that higher scores on the subscales of the TESPA would be significantly and positively correlated with higher levels of physical activity. Moreover, our study purpose was to prepare physical environment questionnaire for a large descriptive study related to physical activity in older Thai people. Objective The purpose of this project was modification and assessment of the TESPA scale in older Thai people to provide a reliable and valid measure that is culturally congruent and useful for future research. Measures Demographics. -A personal data sheet was used to obtain demographic and socioeconomic data including age, gender, income, marital status, education level, area of living, the length of living in their residence and medical history. The Chula Mental Test (CMT), an interviewing questionnaire developed by Jittapunkul, and colleagues was administered to determine the cognitive function of older Thai people who has difficulties in reading and writing.25 The CMT consists of 13 items related to cognitive function. Scales are coded on a dichotomous score of 0 (incorrect) and 1 (correct); items 5 and 12 have two sub-scales, and items 3 and 13 have three sub-scales each. Total scores indicate the cognitive function and range from 0-19. Scores 0-4 illustrate severe cognitive impairment, scores 5-9 depict moderate cognitive impairment, scores 10-14 reveal mild cognitive impairment, and scores 15-19 demonstrate normal cognitive function. Physical activity. -Physical activity was assessed by using the International Physical Activity Questionnaire Long form (IPAQ-L). The IPAQ-L was developed by the International Consensus Group for the Development of an International Physical Activity Questionnaire at the WHO in 1998.26 The IPAQ-L includes 5 parts: work-related activities, transport-related activities, domestic activities, and time spent sitting during the previous 7 days. In addition, the IPAQ-L assesses the frequency, intensity and duration of all daily physical activity. In summary, total physical activity equals the MET score, which is the sum of minutes spent in each domain multiplied by the MET value.26 We used a cut-off point 600 METs, as recommended by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention of the United States of America and the American College of Sports Medicine.27 Threshold values for the IPAQ-L in the present study were categories insufficiently active ( 600 METs-min-week) We translated and adapted the IPAQ-L to fit the habits of older Thai people; content validity was determined by three experts. The content validity index of the IPAQ-L was .96. Numerous studies testing the test-retest reliability of the IPAQ-L revealed results ranging from 0.63 to 0.91, which indicated good repeatability.26,29 In the present study, the stability of the IPAQ-L questionnaire was reported to be 0.77 in 30 Thai elderly. Methods A cross-sectional design was used in the current study. The process of modification of the questionnaire included two phases (see Figure 1). In phase I, the instrument was modified as follows: 1) questionnaire improvement stage and 2) quantification stage. In phase II, instrument assessment was conducted to examine construct validity by confirmatory factor analysis and the known-group method. Insert figure 1 here Phase 1: Modification of instrument Stage 1: Questionnaire improvement stage consisted of measurement review, translation, instrument refinement and item construction. Measurement review and translation procedure: Physical environment is defined as older peoples perception of the physical environment to facilitate or hinder physical activity engagement in three settings: home, neighborhood, and community. We reviewed the relevant research regarding measurement of physical environment from the literature. The existing measurement was chosen based on definition and psychometric properties of measurement. After obtaining written consent from the author, the original questionnaire was translated into Thai versions by the researcher and an independent translator according to the translation-back translation method.28 The Thai version was evaluated by three Thai/English bilingual people. The questionnaire was translated back into English by two Thai-English independent translators who each had taught English to graduate students for more than 20 years. We then compared both versions in the original language, conducted checks with the translators, discussed the differences, and produced a final conse nsus version. 1.2 Instrument refinement and item construction: We modified the translated instruments to achieve a closer cultural fit for older Thai people. During October to December 2007, a preliminary study was conducted with ten elders: five who lived in a municipal area and five in a non-municipal area. The participants were selected from a broad range of backgrounds: five elders had elementary education and had worked in the agricultural sector, three elders had secondary education and had worked as small businesses owners, and two elders were retired and held bachelors degrees. Open-ended interviews were applied to ensure that instrument content and language were suitable for Thai elderly. They were interviewed in their home or a temple in their village. The participants were encouraged to share their opinions regarding the relevancy of items and appropriateness to the culture of older Thai people. Additionally, participants were encouraged to think of additional items that potentially could be used in the questionnaire. Each participant was interviewed twice for 30 minutes for each time, or until no new data occurred. In the preliminary study, no participant refused to participate. Interviews were audio taped and transcribed verbatim. Categories and coding were derived from data sources and previous related studies. Statements by participants about the physical environment were delineated and identified as a content domain. Representative phrases and terms were marked to be used as potential items so that the language of the participants could be preserved. Additional items then were discussed with two Thai experts and an American expert in geriatric nursing. As a consequence, the measurement was modified. Stage 2: Quantification stage This stage involved the validity and reliability of the psychometric properties of the modified measurement. Content validity of the scale was evaluated by three geriatric experts including one physician in geriatric physical activity, one expert in geriatric community nursing, and one expert in geriatric nursing. The experts were asked to rate the level of relevancy between the items and the definition of the concepts as represented. A four-point Likert-type scale ranging from 4 (strongly relevant) to 1 (strongly irrelevant) was used to rate each item. Data collection started in October 2008 after obtaining approval from the Institutional Review Board at Chulalongkorn University, Thailand. Both written and verbal informed consent was obtained in Thai on the same date as the data collection. The informed consent form explained the purpose of the study, benefits, risks, the types of questionnaires and tasks to be completed, and the length of time needed to complete the interview. In particular, it explained about risk prevention and treatment when the risk may occur during the interview or when collection of data is taking place. Permission was obtained from participants prior to data collection. At the setting, the participants were informed about the purpose of the study and their right to refuse participation. If participants chose not to answer the questionnaire, they could withdraw from the study at any time without penalty. They were also notified that their relationship with the health care team would not be affected. Their names were not used; instead, a code number was used to ensure confidentiality. There was no harm to the participants in this study. In addition, to assess the feasibility of using psychometric properties, the modified measurement was determined in the pilot study. The consent was obtained from the directors of primary care units, one in an urban area and the second in a rural area. A purposive sample of 15 older people from each setting was recruited in the pilot study; no respondent refused or dropped out in this stage. The participants were older people, with a mean age of 70+ 4.19 years. Most participants were female (76.7%), married (53.3%), had elementary education (80%), were employed (62.6%), with a household income of less than 5,000 Baht per month (approximately US$147) (76.7%). A substantial proportion (63.3%) lived in urban areas and had lived on average for 44.6 years in their residence. Of the sample, more than half reported sufficient physical activity level (50%), whereas 20% had a low physical activity level. A total of 23.3 % reported having no current health problems, while 16.7 % had hypertensi on. The most frequent type of physical activity reported was household related activity, followed by leisure time activity, transportation related activity, and occupational activity. Stability of reliability was obtained in two weeks, whereas internal consistency was assessed at baseline. Phase 2: Assessing the Instrument Construct validity of the modified scale was determined in the main study. Multi-stage random sampling was employed to obtain a sample of 336 elderly (aged 60 years and older) residing in 12 villages from six provinces of Thailand, who were not part of the preliminary study or the pilot study. In each village, 28 participants were selected by a systematic sampling technique from a name list obtained from the villages primary care unit. A simple random technique was applied and only one member in each family was included in the study. The participants were determined to be eligible to participate in the study if they scored >15 on the CMT, were able to ambulate without assistive devices, and were willing to participate in the present study. Data were collected from November 2008 to April 2009. An authorization letter was sent to officers of the primary care unit in all 12 settings to ask for their consent. After obtaining their consent, the public health nurses of the primary care units were asked by the researcher to make appointments with participants. When verbal agreement was obtained, the participants were asked to sign a consent form. The modified questionnaire was used to conduct interviews lasting between 15 to 20 minutes; each participant received a handkerchief in appreciation for their participation. A total of 336 questionnaires were selected for accuracy of data entry. Statistical analysis showed that two cases with a single or more than one missing value on community environment were deleted, leaving 334 cases for analysis. According to IPAQ Research Committee guidelines, the physical activity scores were processed to reduce data comparability. Ten cases were excluded by the truncation process due to the total duration value being more than 3 hours per activity, and four cases were eliminated because of multivariate outliers. Therefore, 320 cases remained for analysis. Most of the participants in the main study were female, married, had elementary education, and a household income less than 5,000 Baht per month (approximately US$147). Approximately 70% of the participants reported at least one health problem. Shared living was the most frequent living arrangement reported (92.8%) with an average of 4.11 persons per household. A substantial proportion (61.9%) lived in an urban area and stayed in their own residence. Data analysis Descriptive data are presented as mean + SD. The internal reliability of the scale was based on an alpha coefficient greater than or equal to .70; 30 stability of the scale was analyzed by product correlation coefficient. Reliability of each item, overall reliability, and construct validity of the scale were determined using structural equation modeling (SEM).31 The known-group technique was conducted using the multivariate analysis of variance, to compare the physical environment of those who reported sufficient physical activity and those who did not. Statistical significance for analyses except SEM was defined as p Results Phase 1: Modification of instrument Stage 1: Questionnaire improvement stage Following determination of the validity and reliability of the instrument, results were used to make modifications. The following procedures were undertaken. 1.1 Measurement review and translation procedure: Findings from prior studies demonstrated that most physical environment measurements were designed to identify specific characteristics of the built environment (e.g. distance between destinations, presence of sidewalk), and showed moderate to high reliability. Blocks of questions appeared to have different reliability among urban and rural respondents. Only one measurement was constructed for older people.12 A meta-analysis study by Duncan and colleagues concluded that the environmental characteristics in measurement presented in physical activity include facilities, sidewalks, shops and services in walking distance, heavy traffic, high crime, street lighting, and unattended dogs.32 The Social-physical Environmental Supports for Physical Activity Questionnaire (ESPA) is a measurement that designed to capture and assess the supporting social and physical environment for physical activity typically performed by all age.33 The ESPA was selected to collect data in this study because it is closely congruent with the Thai context, and indicates both neighborhood environment and community environment. In addition, the coefficient differences between urban respondents and rural respondents of this scale were small when compared with the other questionnaires.34 Moreover, the previous validity and reliability value of ESPA was acceptable.34 The ESPA is composed of two domains: the social and the physical environment domains. The physical environment is composed of 20 items: 10 neighborhood items (access, characteristics, barriers, use), and 10 community items (access, and barriers). A Likert-scale was used to assess neighborhood items, except for an item on public recreat ion facilities which allowed response options as 1(yes) or 0 (no). The community items have response options of 1(yes) or 2(no), with score form items on recreation facilities, whereas a community item used a Likert Scale. The higher the summary score the stronger the physical environment. The ESPA questionnaire was translated into Thai. Instrument refinement and item construction: All participants recommended that some items of the ESPA questionnaire be deleted and many remarked that the questionnaire format be reviewed. Most participants suggested that 21 physical environment items be eliminated including public swimming pools, sidewalks, parks, walking trails, bike paths, recreational centers, shopping malls (sometimes used for physical activity or walking programs), and being a private member of a recreational facility . These items reflected physical activities and sites that were uncommon in Thailand and thus were not deemed to be valid it this cultural context. As well, five pages of the scale and various types of choices took up too much time and were difficult to answer; for example: In general, would you say that motorized traffic in your neighborhood isà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. Heavy, Moderate or Light., When walking at night, would you describe the STREET lighting in your neighborhood asà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦..Very good, Good, Fair, Poor or Very poor and How safe are the public recreational facilities in your community? would you sayà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Very safe, Somewhat safe, Somewhat unsafe or Not safe at al. Additionally, the literal translation of the word physical activity into Thai git-ja-gam-taang-gaa or à  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ´Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã‹â€ Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ £Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ £Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ¡Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸-à  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ²Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ²Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ¢ (git-ja-gam = activity; taang-gaai= physical) was unfamiliar to older people. Most participants thought this term was difficult to understand and felt that it was not applicable to them. The elders preferred the term kleuan-wai-ok-raeng or à  Ã‚ ¹Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ¥Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ·Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¹Ã‹â€ Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ­Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã¢â€ž ¢Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¹Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ «Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ­Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ­Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¹Ã‚ Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ £Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã¢â‚¬ ¡ (kleuan-wai= movement; ok-raeng= expend energy) instead to define physical activity. The term kleuan-wai-ok-raeng was therefore applied to this study. The interview findings illustrated that the statements contribute to physical environment among participants was delineated and identified as a content domain. Home was most frequently mentioned as a favorite place for engagement in physical activity. The majority of participants expressed that they generally preferred engaging in physical activity at home because of safety concerns and convenience. Representative phrases and terms were marked to be used as potential items so that the language of the participants could be preserved. As a result, the home environment subscale was formulated, and it was consisted of safety and convenience both inside and around home. Based upon the experts suggestions, 21 items that were considered irrelevant on the ESPA were eliminated and four additional items related to home environment were added to the ESPA. Therefore, the modified scale was called Thai Environment Support for Physical Activity in older Thai people (TESPA). A Likert scale was used to assess physical environment for physical activity. Possible responses were 1(strongly disagree), 2(disagree), 3(neither agree nor disagree), 4(agree), and 5(strongly agree). The possible ranges of scores for home, neighborhood, and community sub-scale were 4-20, 3-15, and 3 15 respectively. The total score was calculated by computing the numerical ratings for each answer. The possible scores ranged from 10 to 50. Higher scores indicated a higher level of perceived physical environment supportive of physical activity. In short, the TESPA was conceptualized to include three subscales, with the six items serving as supportive neighborhood and community environments, and the four new items as supportive of home environment. Neighborhood environment was defined as the area around their home to which they could walk within 10 minutes.23 A supportive neighborhood environment referred to older peoples perceptions of support including: characteristics, access, and barriers of physical activity; a pleasant neighborhood for walking; low traffic volume; and lack of unattended dogs in their neighborhood.23 Secondary, community environment is defined as the area contained within a 20-minute drive from the respondents home.23 Community environment support refers to older peoples perceptions of convenience and safety of physical activity in their community: convenience of facilities of the Primary Care Unit; access to parks, playgrounds, and sports fields; and the safety of public recreation facilities.23 Finall y, home environment support is defined as participants perceptions of convenience and safety regarding their home environment, both in and around their home, in relation to their participation in physical activity. Stage 2: Quantification stage The Content Validity Index of the TESPA questionnaire was 0.92. The reliability coefficients of TESPA scale was 0.73 and the test-retest reliability of scale was .76. The results of the pilot study demonstrated that respondents took between 15 to 20 minutes to complete the questionnaire. The measurements were culturally appropriate for older Thai people and the procedures were followed without any difficulty. Phase 2: Assessing the Instrument The physical activity score ranged from 0 to 2203.50 MET-minute/week with a median of 849.25 (SD = 438.63), and the interquartile rang of 670.13 MET-minute score. The skewness coefficient (.26) and the kurtosis statistic (-.52) indicated that the majority of the subjects reported a moderate physical activity score and a close proximity to a normal distribution. Also, 65% of the participants of this study were sufficiently active and 35% were not. The total sum scores of physical environment ranged from 19.00 to 50.00, with a mean of 34.87 (SD = 6.47). The skewness value (.26) and the kurtosis value (-.49) indicated that the majority of the respondents had moderate physical environment scores and the variance was distributed normally. Construct validation was confirmed by confirmatory factor analysis, and the known-group technique. Based on confirmatory factor analysis, the findings demonstrated that the construct of TESPA was composed of three underlying subscales: home, neighborhood, and community environment. The correlation among items ranged from .02 to .77 and the total scale could explain 61.01% of the variance of physical environment. The home, neighborhood, and community subscale could account for 29.4%, 19.7%, and 12.0% of the variance, respectively. The next analysis tested the three-factor model. The measurement model testing was designed to estimate which ten items were used as indicators for the model. Although the original model was statistically significant, the model was not consistent with the data /df= 4.59 and RMSEA more than 0.05 (= 151.54, df= 33; p Insert figure 2 here Table 1 illustrates the loading with t-values and squared multiple correlation coefficients among each observed variables for TESPA scale. The results revealed that all indicators of the TESPA measurement had significant low to high parameter estimates, which were related to their specific constructs and validated the relationships among observed variables and their constructs. The squared multiple correlations for observed variables of the latent variables were ranged from 0.02 to 0.92. The R2 of item 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 were acceptable indicators, except for the item 1, 7, 8, 9, and 10 which were less than .40. Insert Table 1 here The known-group technique is an examination of relationships based on theoretical prediction. 35 Table 2 shows the mean values for each of the TESPA subscales and physical activity subgroups for the complete sample. Those who demonstrated sufficient physical activity had significantly higher physical environment scores along all three subscales and total score. In addition, each subscale was positively correlated with participation in physical activity including neighborhood (r=.30, p Insert Table 2 here Discussion: Testing of the TESPA measurement model in the current study provided additional evidence for the validity and reliability. The findings are discussed in the following section. The content validity and construct validity of the newly designed TESPA scale were accepted. Continued support for the construct validity of the scale was also provided through confirmatory factor analysis and the known-group method. The TESPA measurement model demonstrated that all sub-scales of the measurement had significant low to high parameter estimates, which were related to their specific constructs and validated the relationships among observed variables and their constructs. Within the known-group method, the findings demonstrated that physical environment was significantly correlated with physical activity. This finding indicated that older people with high perceptions of safety, convenience, and accessibility in their home, neighborhood, and community environment were more likely to participate in physical activity. Similarly, active older people who met guideline recommendations for good health scored significantly higher in each of three factors supportive home, neighborhood, and community environment than those who did not. Physical environments affect the participation in behavior by means of the interaction between cognitive functions and environment through human motivation.9-10 Bandura argued that a better environment provides a great opportunity to perform a behavior.10 According to the empirical data in the present study, a plausible explanation for this result contributed to characteristics of the Thai elderly. The majority of the elders sampled have lived in their home for a median 30 years; consequently, they were familiar with the physical characteristics of their environment in and outside the home. It is possible that the friendly environment contributed to motivate them for physical activity engagement, while unfriendly environments discouraged activity. For reliability, although the R2 for item 1, 7, 8, 9 and 10 indicated that these items should be considered irrelevant for the TESPA scale, the measurement model was a good fit with the empirical data. Not only was this scale firstly modified and validated in older Thai adults, but also normative data for comparison in the elderly or other study were not available. Approximately 61 % of the variance in the TESPA scale was explained by the 10 items, whereas 39 % of the variance in this scale remains unexplained. Corresponding with the SCT approach, Bandura argued that nearly all aspects of the physical environment can influence physical activity.36 Owing to the fact that the TESPA measurement includes only safety, convenience, and accessibility aspects of physical environment, it is possible that other aspects may contribute more to physical activity than these aspects. Other aspects of the physical environment may still influence engaging in physical activity; a need is indicated for work to identify these aspects yet unidentified. Therefore, continued evaluation of the psychometric properties both in the other sample and new additional items are necessary to confirm this study. Limitations and recommendations: This study was limited by homogeneity of the sample. The majority of participants was female, married, low socioeconomic status, and lived in their home. Continued testing of the TESPA scale, particularly with socio-economically diverse older adults, is needed to insure that this measure is consistent. Additionally, using objective measurement should be considered, to further add to the validity of the findings and confirm the subjective report. Further, the item related to community environment should be explored via a qualitative study to explore and understand with the physical environment of Thai elderly. Nevertheless, based on factors of the TESPA, manipulation of these factors with cognitive behav